At the Stage of "Exporting Science": A Historical Review of Studies on the Geotectonic Subdivision and Orogeny of the Japanese Islands

Abstract

A new historical review is presented on the progress of the geological sciences in Japan since the Meiji revolution in 1868. Geological knowledge, particularly studies of the geotectonic evolution and orogenic aspects, of the Japanese Islands has progressed through three distinct phases; （1） non-science stage, （2） colonial science stage, and （3） independent science stage, as modeled by Basalla （1967） , who demonstrated a general pattern of transplanting cutting-edge scientific / technological knowledge from western Europe to the rest of the world. During the " non-science " stage from the 1860s to the 1890s, major geological aspects of the Japanese Islands, together with discoveries of unusual rocks, fossils etc., were initially described by foreign geologists （e.g. E. Naumann） . In contrast, almost nothing was contributed by domestic geologists. During the " colonial science " stage, from the 1900s to the 1980s, research and education systems were transplanted effectively from western European countries. For example, applying the purely imported concept of geosyncline, the geotectonic history of the Japanese Islands was summarized for the first time by domestic geologists （e.g., Kobayashi, 1941; Minato et al., 1965 etc.） . The almost unidirectional acceptance of plate tectonics also followed at this stage, with the exception of the rare but outstanding contribution of A. Miyashiro during the 1960s-1970s. During the " independent science " stage from the 1980s, various new ideas and original techniques in geology were proposed by Japanese geologists with lesser help from the western countries than before; i.e., practical criteria for identifying ancient accretionary complex, exhumation tectonic of ultrahigh to high-P / T metamorphic rocks, and subhorizontal growth framework of subduction-related orogens. Furthermore, in the first decade of the 21